Psychology Question

Hello, this is for my life span development course. And I need your help to help do this assignment, so im not sure what this assignment is, it's a bit confusing. I chose to do Social and Emotional Development in Middle Adulthood (Ages 30 – 59). Unless I read the assignment wrong, we don't choose a topic to write about. Please let me know. Additionally, if you have any questions or concerns, please let me know. (:

Also, please avoid any AI- or robotic-generated language, use simple vocabulary and sentences, and avoid plagiarism. Otherwise, my professor will check it through a special tool. Thank you. Lastly, if references are needed, please add them at least 1-3. im sure in the instructions u read it... It will be much clearer... If you need to write about all the ages listed below, let me know, and I will submit all the texts for reading.(:

https://openstax.org/details/books/lifespan-develo... Site for this courses readings

Instructions by Professor:

Overview

This capstone is designed to encourage your synthesis of key developmental issues, stages, theories, concepts, and research methods in early or middle adulthood and to integrate reflective thought and critical scientific reasoning in designing a new research study.

Learning Outcomes

By completing this capstone, you will learn how to:

• Define key issues, stages, and theories in developmental science from a lifespan perspective.
• Identify key biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur in your selected developmental stage (early adulthood or middle adulthood).
• Define key issues relevant to your developmental stage from a lifespan perspective.
• Compare and contrast major developmental theories about key tasks in stages of human development.
• Explain major methods of data collection and research design in lifespan developmental psychology
• Integrate reflective thought and scientific reasoning to develop novel and relevant research questions.

Task

First, you will select and explain a specific stage (early or middle adulthood) in terms of its typical age range and major developmental milestones (biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social).

Then, you will identify a construct that is relevant to your chosen stage. A construct is a behavior, emotion, or experience that can be studied in more detail. For example, key constructs in adulthood could include (but are not limited to) career development, romantic relationship formation, and parenting. You will explain what the construct is and how it is important to your chosen developmental stage.

Next, you will select a theory that helps to explain your chosen construct in your chosen developmental stage. You may choose from Erikson’s theory, information processing theory, attachment theory, behavioral theory, or observational learning theory. Do not choose Piaget or Vygotsky for this capstone. Explain the major ideas in your chosen theory, and discuss how this theory helps to explain why your construct is important during your selected developmental stage.

Finally, you will design a new study of your construct that could be conducted in your selected developmental stage. Use theory to guide the articulation of your research question and hypothesis. Describe your population and how you would select the sample, the study design and general procedure, as well as what variables you would like to measure. You will also discuss the importance of conducting this new research and what it will add to our understanding of adult development.

Please use this chart to help you organize your capstone:

Part	Description	Top Tips for Success
Part I. Developmental Stage Reflect on which phase of adult development is most interesting to you: Early adulthood Middle adulthood Choose ONE stage to focus on for this capstone.	First, create a header for this section (e.g., Developmental Stage). Then, in one paragraph: Articulate your selected developmental stage using a strong topic sentence. Then, in 3-4 sentences that follow, explain the major developmental milestones (i.e., biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social milestones) that occur during your selected stage.	Be specific in this paragraph–make sure to be very clear when articulating and explaining your chosen developmental stage. Define and give concrete examples of each type of milestone (biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social).
Part 2. Construct of Interest Think about the key characteristics of your chosen developmental stage. What aspect is most interesting to you (biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, social)? Now consider a construct (e.g., a specific behavior, emotion, or experience) that piques your curiosity. Select ONE construct that has relevance to your chosen developmental stage.	First, create a header for this section (e.g., Construct of Interest). Then, in one or two paragraphs: Explain the construct in detail. Define and discuss your chosen construct in 3-4 sentences. Then, in another 3-4 sentences, explain why this construct is important to your chosen developmental stage by exploring how it relates to biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and/or social growth during this time.	This part of the capstone asks you to do two things. Be sure to fully explain the construct AND discuss how it impacts development during this time. Be sure your construct is not too vague or general. “Physical development” would be too general, but “declining physical strength” may be specific and interesting enough to design a study about.
Part 3. Developmental Theory Think about the major theories of development you have learned about so far in this course: Erikson’s theory Information processing theory Attachment theory Behavioral theory Observational learning theory (Remember: do not choose Piaget or Vygotsky). Which theory seems to have the most relevance for your developmental stage and the construct of interest you have selected? Do any of the theories help you understand why this construct is so important to development during this time?	First, create a header for this section (e.g., Developmental Theory). Then, in one paragraph: Describe the major ideas of your chosen theory in 3-4 sentences. Then, in another 3-4 sentences, discuss how this theory (and its major ideas) relates to your construct of interest. Be specific in your discussion.	Remember that Part 3 requires you to define AND discuss a theory. Your theory definition will be academic and will rely on textbook content. Your discussion of how the theory applies to your experience will require your own creative thinking as an extension of the textbook content you review. Feel free to leverage a theory that may point you to new research questions about your construct.
Part 4. A New Research Study Considering your stage, construct, and theory, reflect on what you do NOT yet know about the construct from the textbook. Let your creativity emerge, and allow yourself to wonder. What are you curious about? What does your selected theory tell you (or not tell you) about the construct? Create a research question and hypothesis. Think about the type of participant sample you would need to recruit. What characteristics do you want them to have? How will you recruit them? Look at your research question and hypothesis. What variables do you need to measure in order to answer this question? Finally, think about why this study is important to conduct and what it will add to the scientific literature on your topic.	First, create a header for this section (e.g., A New Research Study). Then, in 2-3 paragraphs (of at least 3 sentences each): Articulate your research question as an actual question. Explain your hypothesis (what is your expectation about the study results?). Discuss the type of research design you will use to address your question. Describe the sample and how it will be recruited. Explain the variables you will measure (and how you will measure them). Discuss why the study is important and what it will add to the literature.	Read the instructions carefully! Do not skip any aspect of this section. If you are unclear about what a research question, hypothesis, study design, sample, and/or variable is, look up this information in your textbook. Be sure to get specific about why the study is important to conduct and what it will add. Just “because it’s interesting” or “new” is not sufficient.

Requirements

• Type your capstone using a word processing software program.
• Use a basic font (e.g., Arial, Calibri, Times New Roman, etc.), 12-point size, and 1-inch margins.
• Use APA style in preparing your document and using parenthetical citations.
• Do not include a cover page or abstract.
• Do include a references page.
• Use full and complete sentences. Do not include bullet points or incomplete sentences.
• Do not copy ANY information directly from your textbook or online sources.
• Do not use ANY artificial intelligence (AI) program to generate text for your assignment.
• Do read your textbook and use your own voice to explain the concepts.
• You MUST use parenthetical (in-text) citations throughout your essay, with at least one citation per paragraph.
• Successful capstone essays will be 1000-1200 words.

Resources

Make sure to review these helpful resources associated with this capstone:

• Capstone Rubric: Designing a Research Study
• Example Capstone: Designing a Research Study
• APA Style Guidance for headings, reference page, and parenthetical (in-text) citations: APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition) - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University

Capstone Rubric: Designing a Research Study

	0	1	2	3	4	5
Part 1. Developmental Stage (10%)	The developmental stage of interest for the essay is not clearly identified at the beginning of the essay (section is missing).	The essay names the developmental stage, but provides no other information about major developmental milestones within it.	The essay names the developmental stage and provides limited details about biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and/or social developmental milestones.	The essay names the developmental stage and provides minimally adequate details about biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and/or social developmental milestones.	The essay names the developmental stage and provides moderately developed details about biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social developmental milestones.	The essay names the developmental stage and provides well-developed details about biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social developmental milestones.
Part 2. Construct of Interest (20%)	The essay does not include a construct of interest (section is missing).	The essay identifies a construct but the discussion is vague, incorrect, or missing.	The essay identifies a construct with limited details in the description and/or discussion.	The essay identifies a construct with minimally adequate details in the description and/or discussion.	The essay identifies a construct with a moderately detailed description and/or discussion.	The essay identifies a construct with a well-developed and detailed description and/or discussion.
Part 3. Developmental Theory (10%)	The essay does not identify a developmental theory from the list provided (section is missing).	The essay identifies a theory, but does not describe it accurately.	The essay identifies a theory and provides a minimal or only partially accurate description.	The essay identifies a theory and provides an adequate or moderately accurate description.	The essay identifies a theory and provides a good or mostly accurate description.	The essay identifies a theory and provides an excellent, fully accurate description.
Part 4. A New Research Study (40%)	The essay does not include a proposed study section (section is missing).	The essay proposes a study, but details about major elements (design, methods, hypotheses, contributions) are absent.	The essay proposes a study, but details about some major elements (design, methods, hypotheses, contributions) are absent.	The essay proposes a study and addresses all major elements (design, methods, hypotheses, contributions) in some detail.	The essay proposes a study and addresses all major elements (design, methods, hypotheses, contributions) with good detail.	The essay proposes a study and addresses all major elements (design, methods, hypotheses, contributions) in clear and convincing detail.
Writing (10%)	The writer gives no or very little apparent attention to language use, syntax/grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation. Contains numerous errors throughout.	Language use, syntax/grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors greatly detract from the paper. Contains many errors throughout.	Language use, syntax/grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors detract from the paper. Contains errors throughout.	Language use, syntax/grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors somewhat detract from the paper. Contains some errors throughout.	Language use, syntax/grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors minimally detract from the paper. Contains few errors throughout.	Language use, syntax/grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation errors do not detract from the paper. Contains only very minor or no errors throughout.
APA Style and Formatting (10%)	No attention to APA style or formatting requirements. References are not included.	Limited references are included and / or formatting requirements are minimally followed. APA style is incorrect.	Minimally adequate references are included and/or formatting requirements are minimally acceptable, with several APA style errors.	Adequate references are included and/or formatting is adequate, with several APA style errors.	References are consistent throughout the essay and/or formatting requirements are generally met, with few APA style errors.	References are consistent throughout the essay and/or formatting requirements are clearly met, with no or minimal APA style errors.

Notes

Capstones that do not follow directions (e.g., are completely off-topic) or are clearly plagiarized will earn a total score of 0.

HOW THE PROFESSOR WANTS THE PAPERS IS LIKE AN OUTLINE:

We want your essay to be original, grounded in scientific theory and evidence, and full of your individual creativity. Therefore, we are not sharing an example of a capstone essay for your review. Instead, we are sharing a capstone essay outline, so that you can see how another student might prepare for this essay. While you are not required to create an outline, we strongly encourage you to do so. Prepping in advance will help your capstone essay to be accurate, polished, and professional.

Part 1. Developmental Stage

• Select the developmental stage. Use strong topic sentences to articulate your chosen stage.
• Describe the stage in terms of age range.
• Identify and describe at least one major developmental milestone in each of the following areas: biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. Be sure to reference your source(s).

Part 2. Construct of Interest

• Articulate your construct of interest. Define it in psychological terms with source reference(s).
• Discuss why this construct is relevant to your chosen developmental stage. Be specific and give examples.

Part 3. Developmental Theory

• Explain the major concepts of your selected developmental theory (be sure to select from the approved list in the instructions). Cite your source(s).
• Discuss how these major concepts apply or relate to your construct of interest.
• Describe how this theory can help you understand the importance of studying your construct in the selected developmental stage.

Part 4. A New Research Study

• Articulate your research question in the form of a question (e.g., Do babies recognize their mother’s voice at birth?).
• Describe your hypothesis. Remember that your hypothesis is your expected answer to the research question. Be specific (e.g., Babies will not recognize their mother’s voice at birth but will recognize their mother’s voice after 2 weeks of life).
• Explain what type of research design your new study will use to address your research question. Be sure to name the type of design and explain it.
• Discuss the population of interest for your study. Who will you recruit to be in the study (describe their characteristics) and how will you recruit them?
• Describe the variables in your study. What variables do you need to measure in order to answer your research question? How will you measure them? When/how often do you need to measure them to address your question?
• Explain why this study is important to conduct. What new information will it add to the literature on your topic?

Writing

• Make sure to use clear and complete sentences.
• Paragraphs should each begin with a strong topic sentence, followed by at least 2 other sentences that support the topic sentence.
• Read (and re-read!) your essay to be sure it makes sense to an outside reader. Do not just simply answer all of the points listed above. Ensure that you use writing mechanics to help with clarity and flow.
• Proofread your essay. Use the Writing Center, and get help when you need it.

APA Style

• Each paragraph should contain (at a minimum) one citation. The primary source for your essay will be your textbook.
• You should cite material that you did not generate yourself.
• Use APA style for your headers, reference page, and parenthetical (in-text) citations.
• You may benefit from consulting APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition) - Purdue OWL® for more detailed guidance.

FOR THIS ASSINGMENT, I CHOSE EARLY ADULTHOOD: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood (Ages 30 - 59):

At forty-six years old, quarterback Tom Brady announced his retirement after spending over twenty years as a top player in the NFL. He retired as the number one quarterback in NFL history, but what is perhaps most amazing about his career is how he continued to develop physically after entering middle adulthood. Tom Brady won four of his seven Super Bowl Championships and three of his five Super Bowl MVP awards after thirty years of age, and actually became a faster athlete in certain measures. Tom credits a healthy daily diet and exercise routine with maintaining physical ability, mental sharpness, and energy well into middle adulthood. Even in retirement, he enjoys many activities like working out with friends and riding bikes with his children. He is also involved with community service organizations that help those in need, including the Make-A-Wish Foundation, the Boys & Girls Clubs of America, and Best Buddies International. Whereas Tom’s physical achievements are by no means typical for his age, his dedication to work, family, personal wellness, and community service is an exceptional example of the developmental benefits of active engagement in middle adulthood (DeArdo, 2024; Patra, 2023; Petre & Knott, 2022).

Physical and cognitive changes in middle adulthood tend to be gradual, occurring over many years. The nearly thirty-year length of this life stage allows for a wide variety of developmental experiences, both within and between individuals. For example, some adults begin to show gray hair in their thirties, while others don’t gray during this stage. These variations make it difficult to generalize about physical development in middle adulthood. Variation in human aging is largely explained by the interaction of our genetics with our experiences. Aging from inevitable and genetically influenced biological changes is known as primary aging. For example, with age, hair follicles naturally reduce their production of pigment, which results in graying hair. On the other hand, secondary aging results from the influence of environmental or behavioral factors, as opposed to genetic influences. For example, many signs of aging skin, such as wrinkles and changes in pigmentation, are caused by sun exposure.

Physical aging is an inevitable part of the human life cycle. The timing and experience of the related processes are improved for many adults by increasing healthy behaviors and having a positive mindset. Adults generally often adopt healthier eating behaviors with age (Whitehead, 2016), are less likely to experience mental illness (NIMH, 2021) during the period of middle adulthood compared to other periods of the lifespan. Individuals in middle adulthood also often develop more positive perceptions of aging by prioritizing their emotional and psychological goals (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005).

Questions to Consider

• What are the key differences between primary and secondary aging, and how do lifestyle choices impact the aging process in middle adulthood?
• How do changes in sensory abilities, such as vision and hearing, affect daily life and cognitive functioning during middle adulthood?
• What role do brain plasticity and cognitive processing speed play in maintaining memory and problem-solving skills as individuals age?
• How can diet, physical activity, and social engagement contribute to maintaining physical and cognitive health in middle adulthood?

Changes in the Brain

Although the human brain does not physically grow in adulthood, its functions—like perception, memory, and information processing—continue to evolve. Some aspects stabilize and are indistinguishable from those of early adulthood, such as the ability to make and utilize mental images (Caçola et al., 2013). Researchers have also identified changes in other areas of the brain during middle adulthood, some of which show improved functioning and some of which show decreased functioning.

Perception

The brain perceives and responds to emotional stimuli differently in middle adulthood. Findings suggest that compared to younger adults, middle-aged adults pay more attention to and recall positive stimuli, like a smiling infant or cute kittens, and show less amygdala reactivity (recall that the amygdala is the part of the brain that produces automatic fear and anger responses) when exposed to negative images, like a snarling dog or a gruesome injury (Charles et al., 2003; Mather et al., 2004) (Figure 13.2). This shift in attention to and processing of positive versus negative emotional information is called the positivity effect and may help promote psychological and emotional well-being (Carstensen, 2021; Carstensen & Reynolds, 2023). The positivity effect may also boost physical health, since positive affect has been found to predict healthy exercise behaviors in adulthood (Whitehead, 2016).

Memory and Information Processing

It is not uncommon to hear adults in middle age comment about becoming forgetful and even seeking out memory assessments. This perceived memory loss is not supported by research, however. No differences in memory are typically found between middle and young adults, and people in these developmental stages seem to generally function at the same level in terms of memory (Salthouse, 2012). It is more likely that perceived forgetfulness is a result of the cognitive overload associated with the responsibilities of parenting, looking after aging parents, maintaining a career, and so on (Mayo Clinic Health System, 2022).

One real change in brain processes in middle adulthood is a slower processing speed than at younger ages. Scientists gauge processing speed by measuring reaction time, such as how quickly a person presses a button on a keyboard when prompted. Adults also have more difficulty filtering distracting stimuli during a task (Kray et al., 2008) (Figure 13.3). In the brains of middle-aged adults, more areas of the cortex are activated in response to cognitive tasks than in younger adult brains (Gunter et al., 1998; Kwon et al., 2016). One explanation might be that ideas are being associated with greater memory context in older adults because of their life experience. For example, when shown random images as part of a memory task, middle-aged adults with more life experience might associate those random images with a broader network of personal memories than would a young adult. While this broader network activation may slow processing speed, it also likely enables more complex and nuanced problem-solving abilities. However, reduced processing speed may also be exacerbated by long-term health problems, such as diabetes (Tufvesson et al., 2013) or chronic pain (Rouch et al., 2021).

Brain Health

As general health concerns increase in midlife, many people wonder how to maintain brain health and prevent cognitive decline, dementia, or illnesses like Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers have investigated the connection between brain health and various lifestyle factors, including diet, dental hygiene, exercise, and social engagement.

Some reports suggest moderate amounts of caffeine (two to three cups of coffee a day) are associated with lower risks of developing dementia (Zhang et al., 2021). However, high rates of caffeine consumption have been associated with increased rates of dementia and reduced hippocampal volume (Pham et al., 2021).

Potential benefits or risks of alcohol consumption vary: Moderate amounts (one to two drinks a day) may reduce dementia risk, whereas large amounts are associated with increased risk compared to nondrinking (Jeon et al., 2023). Recommendations about alcohol are complicated by the difficulty in pinpointing the exact level at which consumption becomes dangerous. As a result of this uncertainty, the World Health Organization (WHO) has published a statement that no level of alcohol consumption is deemed safe (WHO, 2023), as there is not a clear upper limit for healthy alcohol consumption.

The Mediterranean diet—high in fruit, vegetables, grains, and olive oil and low in red meat and processed foods—has also been associated with protecting healthy brain functioning. In particular, the brains of adults following this eating approach are less likely to exhibit the accumulation of plaques in the brain that lead to cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease (Agarwal et al., 2023).

Link to Learning

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Many aspects of the Mediterranean diet can be more affordable than less healthy food choices. For example, protein sources such as lentils and chickpeas are often cheaper than meat-based proteins. However, other food choices may be more costly, such as using olive oil instead of other sources of fat. Check out this article about more affordable ways to eat the Mediterranean way to learn what to prioritize on your shopping list.

Researchers have investigated the connection between oral health and dementia risk. A study of more than 6,000 patient medical records revealed that adults with periodontal disease were more likely to be later diagnosed with dementia (Beydoun et al., 2020). Postmortem analyses of the brains of deceased individuals with dementia found higher levels of a type of bacteria associated with gingivitis. These bacteria can release an enzyme that damages nerve cells and causes symptoms of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Although these results are correlational rather than causal, researchers are examining how proactive oral care and treatments for bacterial infections in the mouth may reduce the risk of dementia (Dominy et al., 2019).

Staying or becoming physically active also benefits brain health. Cardiovascular exercise increases blood flow, which promotes the growth of capillary and neural networks in the brain (Konopka, 2015). Physical exercise has been associated with better cognitive function in both naturalistic and experimental settings. Older adults who exercise regularly perform better on tests of cognitive function than those who do not, even when controlling for other health and lifestyle factors (Kumar et al., 2022). Following a stroke, adults who participated in a thorough and progressive fitness program involving strength and aerobic exercises showed greater cognitive performance at a six-month follow-up than did those in low-intensity fitness programs (Liu-Ambrose et al., 2022).

Cohen (2004) proposes that strong social ties may deliver both direct and indirect benefits to adults’ health. Social ties buffer against stress, and chronic stress has been found to cause changes in brain chemistry that eventually shrink structures of the brain involved in cognition, such as the hippocampus (Willner, 2017). Social participation may also encourage engagement in activities that promote brain and cognitive health, including physical and intellectual activity (Cohen, 2004).

Changes in Sensory Abilities

In addition to experiencing changes to how the brain perceives and processes information, people may notice changes in their sensory abilities during middle adulthood. Structural components of the eyes change, hearing acuity declines, and there are subtle changes to the sense of touch.

The eyes experience a loss of visual acuity in middle age, which is referred to as presbyopia. Two common issues arise: First, a thickening of the eye’s lens reduces its elasticity, making it less likely to bend to accommodate targets closer to the eye. As a result, middle-aged adults often have trouble seeing up close and experience blurriness when reading, as shown in Figure 13.4. A second aspect of presbyopia is the buildup of yellowish extracellular debris that can cause age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a deterioration of the light receptors in the retina (Grossniklaus et al., 2013).

Difficulty adjusting to changes in light may also cause challenges for night driving. In middle age, the pupil does not dilate or constrict as much in response to bright or dimly lit conditions. Compared to younger adults, drivers in middle adulthood self-report greater difficulty seeing pedestrians at night compared to daytime (Mikoski et al., 2019).

Age-related hearing loss is called presbycusis. Over time, the inner ear’s structures and nerves slowly deteriorate, and initial hearing loss first affects adults’ ability to detect high-frequency sound waves. As a result, they may notice an increasing difficulty in hearing high-pitched noises, such as a beeping microwave or dinging cell phone or doorbell. Hearing loss is also exacerbated by cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, and diabetes (Baiduc et al., 2023). Hearing loss due to chronic noise exposure is estimated to affect as many as 25 percent of U.S. adults (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2022), particularly men who are traditionally more likely to work in professions with high-volume noise, such as construction or mining (Hoffman et al., 2017). For example, the second most common disability benefit for U.S. service members (a group where men outnumber women at least four to one) is for hearing loss, with 1.3 million people receiving compensation (Veteran Benefit Administration, 2020).

Link to Learning

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Explore this audiovisual representation of different frequency levels within the human audio spectrum to learn what they sound like. What sounds do you encounter in daily life that might be at low frequency? Medium frequency? High frequency?

Among veterans receiving disability benefits, hearing loss is topped only by tinnitus, another hearing-related condition caused by exposure to loud noises, which causes the sensation of persistent ringing in the ear (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d.). Hearing aids can be beneficial to those experiencing hearing loss; however, only 16 percent of those who need them use them. The National Council on Aging identified barriers to hearing aid use, including access to and cost of health care in the United States (Everett, 2023). As a result, many adults consider treatment of hearing loss to be a lower priority than other health-care needs. However, supportive health care for hearing loss is crucial to keeping the growing adult population engaged and healthy. Chronic hearing loss can impede work, social engagement, and daily activities. Straining to hear while working, socializing, or accomplishing daily tasks can lead to stress, fatigue, and impaired brain function. Those who acquire hearing aids are therefore less susceptible to cognitive decline and to reduced risk of dementia (Yeo et al., 2022).

Other sensory capabilities may also decline in middle age. As skin thins and loses elasticity with age, sensitivity to hot and cold decreases (Huang et al., 2010). In middle adulthood, proprioception, the body’s sense of location and movement in space, also becomes less acute, making adults more prone to loss of balance, falls, and ankle injuries as they age (Pinto et al., 2020).

Link to Learning

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Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is a major cause of secondary aging. The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) identifies common sources of unhealthy noise exposure you might encounter throughout life and ways to prevent NIHL. The NIDCD websites present health information about NIHL and a NIDCD Fact Sheet on NIHL that presents further details.

Body Changes

In midlife, adults begin to experience changes to their bodies. These changes may initially be more apparent in external visible areas like the skin. In contrast, internal changes, such as reduced bone density, may not be readily noticed.

Body Composition

Body composition changes can often be the most apparent signs of aging. Over time, the middle-aged body loses muscle and adds body fat. Age-related muscle loss is called sarcopenia. After the age of fifty years, adults lose 1 to 2 percent of muscle each year (Larsson et al., 2019; Marcell, 2003). Related to both sarcopenia and the increase in body fat is also an increase in obesity among middle-aged adults, which is associated with numerous health issues. Slowing metabolism is commonly associated with weight changes in middle age, and it does bear some of the responsibility. The chemical process by which bodies convert food to energy is metabolism. In middle adulthood, the basic metabolic rate declines, meaning the body now needs less energy when at rest (Pontzer et al., 2021).

Typical middle-aged bodies for women are not well represented in the media. A recent season of The Golden Bachelor, which focused on older adults’ search for love, received criticism for the lack of body diversity among the contestants (Battle, 2023). And while adults increasingly focus on how their bodies function (as opposed to how they look) (Roy & Payette, 2012), exposure to images of idealistically thin bodies has been found to negatively influence body image, regardless of age (Price et al., 2023), especially for White women (Roy & Payette, 2012). On the other hand, adults with more positive attitudes toward aging and higher self-esteem are more likely to report positive body image (Pearce et al., 2014; Price et al., 2023).

Semaglutide hormone therapies are being explored as medical approaches to weight management, particularly for adults at risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Semaglutide acts on the hypothalamus to reduce appetite and food intake, and initial studies have found promising results for patients using these injectable medications to sustain weight loss and lower risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes (Lincoff et al., 2023; Ryan et al., 2024; Wadden et al., 2021).While drugs that contain semaglutide, such as Ozempic and Wegovy, were originally developed to treat type 2 diabetes, researchers are exploring their usefulness for weight management. While Wegovy is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a method of weight management, Ozempic is still only FDA approved to treat type 2 diabetes and lower the risk of associated cardiovascular disease (FDA, 2024). More research is needed to determine the long-term effectiveness against possible side effects and risks of these drugs as medical approaches to adult weight management.

Skin

The skin shows noticeable signs of aging, such as wrinkles, age spots, and sagging. The layers of skin lose their elasticity, thickness, and water and fat content, which causes the skin to appear loose or wrinkled. Too much sun exposure without adequate protection (e.g., using sunscreen or wearing a hat) results in secondary aging with sunspots, wrinkling, and increased risk of skin cancer (Wong & Chew, 2021) (Figure 13.5).

Bone Density

One important health concern in middle adulthood is decreasing bone density. Bone density reaches a peak in the mid to late thirties and then progressively declines in a process called osteoporosis. Osteoporosis, which can result in more frequent bone fractures and breaks, occurs in those assigned female at birth (AFAB) at twice the rate as it does for those assigned male at birth (AMAB), owing to the reduction of estrogen and progesterone experience during menopause. The risk of osteoporosis can be reduced through diet and exercise.

Increasing calcium consumption starting in early adulthood helps the body to grow and helps strengthen the bones and teeth. However, the body does not produce its own calcium, so this nutrient must be obtained through calcium-rich foods, such as dairy products, almonds, dark leafy greens, salmon, and tofu. Vitamin D helps the body to absorb the calcium in these foods. Vitamin D is produced naturally by the body but can also be supplemented by foods rich in vitamin D, such as fish, eggs, mushrooms, and vitamin D–fortified foods, such as milk and cereal.

Bone health can also be promoted through regular participation in strength-training exercises, which have been shown to increase bone density in persons AFAB (Kistler-Fischbacher et al., 2021; Nelson et al., 1994). Strength training also helps support balance, metabolism, and cognition (Mayo Clinic, 2023). Strength training does not require weightlifting but rather weight-bearing exercises. Weight-bearing exercises are those that require the bones and joints of our body to sustain our own body weight and can include yoga, walking, jogging, or climbing stairs (Figure 13.6).

It Depends

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Do Professional Athletes Have to Retire before Middle Adulthood?

You earlier read the story of athlete Tom Brady, who retired from professional football at forty-six years of age. While in most major professional sports, athletes retire before age thirty (RBC Wealth Management, 2024), some notable individuals continue achieving in their thirties, forties, and even fifties. Serena Williams won the 2017 Australian Open at the age of thirty-five years, while eight weeks pregnant. The oldest woman athlete at the 2022 Winter Olympics was Germany’s Claudia Pechstein, a speed skater who placed ninth just three days before her fiftieth birthday. Japanese soccer player Kazuyoshi Miura plays for Yokohama FC at the age of fifty-seven years.

While these individuals are all notable, several subtle changes occur physically that can make continued athletic achievements like these difficult after early adulthood. Reaction times in middle adulthood are slower than in young adulthood. Changes of even 0.1 milliseconds can be enough to affect performance in many reactionary or responsive sports (like reacting to a serve in tennis). The changes in metabolism and body composition require adjustments to training and diet to maintain a fitness level appropriate for competing with athletes who are at their optimal younger age. Athletes who continue playing in middle age maintain careful diets and engage in increased strength work to maintain muscle and bone mass.

Female Reproductive Changes

The female reproductive system undergoes several significant changes over the thirty-year span of middle adulthood. During this stage of life, women typically experience two childbirths (with the associated physical changes), though 15 percent of women forty-five to fifty years old have not had biological children (Korhonen, 2023; Schaeffer & Aragão, 2023). Between the ages of forty and sixty years, the female reproductive system begins to experience changes leading to menopause.

Changes Resulting from Pregnancy

Estrogen and progesterone hormones are produced at their highest rate during pregnancy and are responsible for many changes. For example, females may experience sensation changes to taste (e.g., a greater tolerance for some tastes and a decreased ability to taste), a higher sensitivity to smells, and temporary changes to vision and pressure in the eyes. Body temperature rises slightly during pregnancy, which increases risk of heat stress and dehydration.

Physical changes during pregnancy include growth and tenderness of the breasts as milk production begins. The increase in progesterone also influences a relaxing of ligaments and joints. As a result, many pregnant people will notice they have a flatter arch and longer, wider feet (Segal et al., 2013) and may move to a larger shoe size or more flexibly fitting footwear. Stretch marks may also appear on the skin of the abdomen and breasts as well as the thighs. These skin changes will typically fade over time.

Exercise during pregnancy is recommended for most pregnant persons. According to the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, those accustomed to rigorous exercise prior to pregnancy can continue to engage in those activities (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2018). Those who were not exercising prior to pregnancy are generally encouraged to start with moderate activities, such as walking or water aerobics, for thirty minutes a day, five days a week.

Pregnancy-induced changes continue into the postpartum period and beyond. Medical professionals typically recommended that people who have given birth avoid sex for six weeks because the cervix (which has contracted and expanded during birth) needs to heal. During pregnancy and breastfeeding, structures inside the breasts swell to support lactation but shrink when no longer needed. This may result in a smaller breast size (Kahn & Sajjad, 2023). Connective tissue in pregnant people’s bodies becomes more flexible in order to support body shape changes needed for pregnancy and childbirth, and this loosening of connective structures may lead to long-term changes in shape and function of structures throughout the body, including larger feet with lower arches (Alcahuz-Griñan et al., 2021), increased finger joint flexibility (Afshar & Tabrizi, 2021), wider hips (Morino et al., 2019), looser skin, and a drop in the pelvic floor muscles. Changes to the pelvic floor muscles can sometimes cause discomfort during sex as well as incontinence (difficulty controlling urination), especially when jumping or sneezing. Pelvic floor muscles can be gradually strengthened and supported over time by practicing pelvic muscle exercises and learning to conduct everyday physical activities (like lifting children) using proper posture, muscle engagement, and even breathing (Nowogrodzki, 2019).

Link to Learning

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Writer and editor Bianca London criticizes the pressure that “snap-back” culture puts on women’s postpartum bodies. Check out her Glamour Magazine UK article where she wonders why “mum bods” can’t be celebrated as part of the diversity of body shapes across the lifespan.

Menopause

The climacteric results in menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle. Menopause may occur anywhere between forty and sixty years of age and consists of three phases: premenopause, perimenopause, and postmenopause. During the premenopausal phase, females begin to experience irregular menstrual cycles due to fluctuations in estrogen (Figure 13.7). In the perimenopausal phase, even greater variations in menstrual cycles can occur. This phase is often associated with unexpected sensations of feeling hot and increased perspiration (among numerous physical symptoms), commonly referred to as hot flashes. These changes leading up to menopause can occur gradually over eight to ten years. The postmenstrual phase occurs as estrogen and progesterone levels continue to drop and menstruation has ceased for one year.

Link to Learning

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This video about the biological processes that lead to menopause and how women experience these changes is presented by obstetrics-gynecology and pain physician Dr. Jen Gunter.

Menopausal changes in hormone levels bring other physical changes beyond the loss of reproductive ability. For example, estrogen helps maintain bone mass, so the drop in estrogen puts women at increased risk of osteoporosis and subsequent skeletal injuries, such as bone fractures (Ji & Yu, 2015) (Figure 13.8). In general, menopause does not cause severe psychological symptoms, though research indicates that Black women in the United States are at greater risk of experiencing menopausal symptoms earlier and to a greater extent than White women because of social disadvantages and disparate treatment (Harlow et al., 2022). Some women report brain fog and issues with memory, and research indicates that estrogen may protect neural health (Goldstein, 2021). Menopause is also associated with a decrease in volume of some areas of the cortex, even when age is controlled for (Schelbaum et al., 2021). However, many reported cognitive concerns can also be attributed to disruption of sleep due to hot flashes and the general stress of middle adulthood. In the postmenopausal phase, cognitive abilities return to a level more consistent with that prior to menopause (Schelbaum et al., 2021).

The physical and psychological experience of menopause varies individually and cross-culturally. According to research by Hall and colleagues (2007), while most persons AFAB in the United States report experiencing hot flashes during menopause, hot flashes are reported less frequently by females in many Asian countries. Persons AFAB living in modern cultures removed from traditional cultural practices often characterize the transition in terms of discomfort or embarrassment, anxiety, loss of control, and loss of youth, and many see it as a disorder that requires treatment. Persons AFAB in more traditional cultures are more likely traditional cultures are more likely to welcome an increase in wisdom, relief from the responsibility to bear and raise children, and the opportunity to mentor others and start a new chapter of life. Societal influences on perceptions of menopause shape different responses to and management of menopause, including self-care practices such as using cold compresses and controlled breathing, using herbal remedies, seeking out role models and education, acknowledging menopause as a rite of passage and attainment of privilege, and adopting a positive, forward-looking mindset (Hall et al., 2007).

It Depends

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Evaluating Hormone Replacement Therapy

In the 1990s, hormone replacement therapy (HRT), consisting of doses of estrogens and progestin, was often prescribed to women to offset symptoms of menopause and reduce the risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. While observed increases in breast cancer and uterine cancer were associated with long-term high-dosage use, overall mortality was predicted to decrease as a result of the reduced rate of cardiovascular disease (Ross et al., 1989), so it was still recommended that “HRT should be offered to all postmenopausal women” who did not have preexisting risk factors, such as a history of breast cancer (McKeon, 1994).

However, in 2002, longitudinal clinical trials conducted by the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) on the long-term effects of HRT were stopped prematurely based on results indicating that the risks of breast cancer and CVD were too great for study participants. This drastic action created panic among many patients and doctors, and HRT was no longer considered an advisable treatment (Tormey et al., 2006). However, criticisms of the design of the study, such as that it included women much older than would typically be prescribed HRT, have led some to reconsider the rejection of HRT (Cagnacci & Venier, 2019).

Reanalysis of the original WHI data (Manson et al., 2013) and new clinical trials (Schierbeck et al., 2012) that studied outcomes of HRT by age found that if prescribed within ten years of the onset of menopausal symptoms, the treatment was associated with menopausal symptom relief and a decreased risk of CVD and death. So, what now? The best advice seems to be to talk with your doctor. Dr. Barb DePree, a gynecologist with thirty years of experience, recommends, “Treatment for menopausal symptoms needs to be customized for each woman, given her risk factors, symptoms, and preferences” (DePree, 2019).

Male Reproductive Changes

Like women, men are also more likely to have children after age thirty years. At that same age, however, the fertility of the male reproductive system begins to decline, with a decrease in testicular size and sperm quality beginning in middle adulthood (Vaughan et al., 2020; Well et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2011). The climacteric is a more gradual process in males than in females. Several changes occur in the male reproductive system that make reproduction less likely but not impossible.